Reimagining the River: Cases from Selected Southeast Asian Countries

Introduction

Rivers have long been pivotal to the development and sustenance of human civilizations, serving as critical sources of water, transportation, and fertile land. In Southeast Asia, rivers are not only vital ecological systems but also central to cultural heritage, socio-economic development, and environmental sustainability. However, urbanization, industrialization, increasing demand, and climate change have profoundly impacted and transformed many rivers across the region. These changes have created a complex interplay between human activity, ecological health, and cultural practices posing both challenges and opportunities for sustainable and equitable river management.

Re-imagination of rivers as ecospheres in contemporary Southeast Asia requires innovative solutions that integrate ecological restoration, sustainable development, and cultural revitalization. This process extends beyond conventional conservation efforts, embracing a more holistic approach that balances human needs with the preservation of river ecosystems. Given the diverse geographical, social, and political context across the Southeast Asia countries, the strategies adopted to re-imagination of rivers vary widely, but all reflect a growing recognition of the need to rethink the relationship between communities and their rivers.

This article examines case studies from selected Southeast Asia countries highlighting diverse approaches to river re-imagination. By analyzing these cases, it aims to provide insights into the opportunities and challenges associated with sustainable river management and the restoration of the river’s role in fostering resilience within local communities. This article contributes to a broader discourse on the re-conceptualization of rivers, focusing on the balance between ecological preservation, cultural values, and sustainable development in a rapidly changing economic growth in Southeast Asia.

Theoretical Background

River ecosystems provide essential ecosystem services and support varieties of human activities.  These services including water supply, water quality improvement, flood and drought control, and cultural benefits are intricately linked to various eco-hydrological processes, which are the natural processes that regulate water movement, storage and quality within the systems. Brauman et al. (2007) emphasized the importance of understanding how hydrologic ecosystem processes are linked to the hydrologic services they provide as well as the need to incorporate this comprehensive understanding into water policy and land management practices. For instance, evapotranspiration, the combined processes of direct evaporation and transpiration by plants that transfer water to the atmosphere is not only vital for regulating water availability and maintaining water quality but also play a crucial role in controlling microclimates. The flowchart concept shows how each hydrologic process contributes to multiple services (Figure1).

In recent years, the global population growth, economic demands, urbanization and climate change, have significantly transformed river systems and their landscapes worldwide. Activities such as dam construction, sand and gravel mining, stream channelization, and extensive irrigation provide economic benefits but at the same time place considerable pressure on natural ecosystems. These modifications often compromise both ecological health, disrupt social well-being, and threaten the long-term sustainability of riverine environments (Ekka et al. 2020). In response, river management practices are increasingly shifting focus to address broader societal challenges, prioritizing resilience through the protection and restoring riverine integrity. These objectives have become central to policy agendas in many countries (Chittoor & Schirmer 2015).

A theoretical gap and academic debate persist in defining the most effective approaches in protection and restoration projects, particularly in establishing robust assessment metrics. Global review of the physical and biological effectiveness of stream habitat rehabilitation techniques shows diverse methods with varying degrees of effectiveness.

Based on 345 papers published between 1937 to 2006, with the majority of cases from United States, Canada, and Europe on the effectiveness of stream rehabilitation (Roni, Hanson, and Beechie 2008), the findings indicate that:

The analysis on the effectiveness of stream rehabilitation based on 345 studies between 1937 and 2006 focusing on the United States, Canada, and Europe, highlight a range of successful and promising restoration techniques such as reconnection of isolated habitats, floodplain rehabilitation, and in-stream habitat improvement have demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing habitat quality and increasing fish abundance, riparian rehabilitation, road improvements, dam removal, and restoration of natural floods. However, the long-term assessments are currently limited (Roni, Hanson, and Beechie 2008).

Engaging with riparian communities is likewise seen as enhancing inclusive decision making and long-term river health is vital for integrative river re-imagination. Community involvement in all stages from problem identification, planning, implementation and evaluation offer localized, traditional and situated socio-ecological knowledge which in turn strengthens stewardship and legitimacy.

Globally, a shift is underway from top-down, expert-driven river governance to more inclusive, collaborative models. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), for example, emphasizes the important role of community involvement and the need for long term, well-designed biological monitoring efforts to evaluate the sustained impact of various rehabilitation techniques on physical habitat conditions, water quality, and the abundance of biota. Meaningful and active community engagement involves raising awareness about the project, incorporating local knowledge and fostering a sense of ownership among stakeholders. This approach ensures public support as well as the alignment of project initiatives with social, cultural and economic interests of the community. IUCNs river restoration’s guideline outlines six principles that should serve as foundation of the river restoration initiations and efforts below:

Recognizing the role of the communities in conservation, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) provided the six key principles to guide effective river restoration:

In addition a broader literature review highlights right-based approaches for river protection and restoration worldwide. Notably in 2017, New Zealand (NZ) was the first country to pass a groundbreaking law granting personhood status to the Whanganui River (Talbot-Jones and Bennett 2022). This law recognizes the river is a living entity, encompassing all its physical and spiritual aspects from mountains to the sea. The pioneering legal approach has influenced other countries, including India (O’Donnell 2018) and Bangladesh (Islam and O'Donnell 2020), which have since granted all its rivers the same rights as people.

Similar to many other countries in the world, rivers in Europe have been heavily engineered and fragmented. Past human activities have modified and destroyed the health of the river, impacting freshwater biodiversity, posing increasing risk to communities and undermining climate resilience. The latest effort toward green development and the EU Biodiversity Strategy plans to reconnect the previously fragmented rivers up to 25,000 km by 2030 (European Commission 2023). This involves removing obstacles like dams to allow endangered species to migrate freely. River restoration efforts not only support ecological recovery but bring back essential services to human communities including flood protection, water purification, and recreational opportunities.

Southeast Asian countries are facing multiple challenges in achieving sustainable development. The region’s diverse communities, complex socio-political dynamics, and growing transboundary environmental issues present challenges. These are exacerbated by limited regional capacity and escalating impacts of climate change further complicate the path to sustainability. 

In response Subregional Action Plans have been developed to promote sustainable urban planning and infrastructure development to manage rapid urbanization, and by ensuring sustainable land management and biodiversity conservation to protect vital ecosystems. Efforts also focus on river basin governance through regional mechanisms like the Mekong River Commission (MRC), which represents important steps toward cooperative water governance, stronger coordination, equitable participation, and inclusive planning.

However, river governance in Southeast Asia remains contested due to differing perspectives among various stake holders. Local communities often view the rivers as a living cultural entity, deeply intertwined with spiritual life, livelihoods, and seasonal rhythms. In contrast, states tend to frame rivers as resources of economic growth that require flow regulation and control, while international conservation organizations emphasize rivers as biological hotspots in need of conservation.

Although some small-scale pilot projects show that a comprehensive and inclusive approach with a focus on long-term river health and community wellbeing is essential. Embracing this multidimensional approach is crucial for achieving a genuine sustainable development and building resilience in the region amid growing climate change uncertainties.

The next section will explore the re-imagination of rivers through selected examples from Southeast Asian countries. The re-imagination of rivers is an emerging concept in many Southeast Asian countries, where rivers, once primarily seen as resources for transportation, agriculture, and industry, are now being reconsidered for their broader ecological, cultural, and economic values. This shift reflects a growing recognition of the need for sustainable development and the restoration of these vital waterways, particularly as climate change and urbanization place greater pressure on river systems.

Case studies from Southeast Asian Countries

Despite rapid economic growth, Southeast Asian countries face the complex challenge of achieving sustainable development goals particularly on water, cities, sustainable consumption and production, climate, and life below water (ASEAN Secretariat 2023). With a population of 670 million projected to reach 750 million by 2035, and rising urbanization, pressures on the region's rivers are also increasing. Factors such as human activities affecting water quality and quantity, climate change, and water-related disasters are escalating vulnerabilities and risks, particularly impacting human health and well-being.

Interest in greener development and river re-imagination is growing, but practical application remains limited. In 2023, Southeast Asian communities launched the ASEAN Green Initiatives for the first time to address environmental challenges through collaborative efforts focused on biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. The initiative emphasizes the importance of balancing the need for economic growth with the protection and restoration of vital ecosystems.

Case Study: Vietnam

Background and Urban Water Challenges:

Water resources have long been acknowledged as an important source for Vietnam’s growth. However, during the nation's period of development, rivers were often undervalued in terms of their contribution to sustainable development, human safety, and well-being. Their significance as a vital natural resource and ecological asset has not always been recognized. As a result, the importance of protecting and managing water resources has been overlooked. This has led to numerous cases of severe declines in the quality and quantity of domestic water supply and water shortages in many regions today. 

Within Ho Chi Minh city, after decades of waste and sewage dumping, rivers in the city are filled with pollutants and garbage. It is estimated that about 1.4 million cubic meters of domestic wastewater are discharged into ponds, lakes, and rivers in this city per day with only 13% of this being treated (Thanh An Environmental Technology 2024). Over the past decades, Ho Chi Minh has introduced and implemented various measures to reduce pollution and clean up the urban river and lake systems. Despite its limitations, there have been several notable achievements in environmental improvement. The restoration of the Nhieu Loc - Thi Nghe canal system can be regarded as a prominent example of this progress.

Nhieu Loc - Thi Nghe Canal Restoration Project

Nhieu Loc - Thi Nghe canal, formerly known as the Thi Nghe River is a nearly 10-kilometer long waterway that traverses key districts (Districts 1, 3, Binh Thanh, Phu Nhuan, and Tan Binh) before emptying into the Saigon River. Originally a vital drainage channel, the canal was gradually encroached upon by residential development. The direct discharge of untreated waste from households and industries transformed it into one of the most polluted areas in the city.

Challenges in Urban Water Management

Urban expansion resulted in the construction of numerous dilapidated houses along the canal, which reduced its width and significantly impeded the natural flow of water. At the same time, the continuous discharge of untreated waste led to severe congestion and stagnation in the waterway, causing foul odors and an overall decline in water quality.

Government Initiatives and Community Support

Since 1993, the Ho Chi Minh City government has recognized the need to revitalize the canal area. Key initiatives included:

●  Major Investment: Launching the Nhieu Loc - Thi Nghe environmental sanitation project with nearly 8,600 billion VND in funding.

●  Urban Renewal: Demolishing thousands of substandard houses and relocating nearly 7,000 households, primarily to state-designated apartment complexes, such as the Rach Mieu, Tran Quoc Thao, Hiep Binh Phuoc, and the 1A - 1B Nguyen Dinh Chieu complexes.

●  Comprehensive Social Support: The project's housing policy includes cash compensation and support for purchasing apartments through installment plans, aimed at helping residents transition from dirty, cramped houses along the canal and long-established communities to improved living environments.

Infrastructure Upgrades and Environmental Outcomes

The restoration project was marked by extensive infrastructural improvements:

●  Canal Dredging: Removal of nearly 1.1 million cubic meters of soil to restore the canal’s capacity.

●  Embankment Construction: Installation of approximately 16 kilometers of new embankments.

●  Utility Enhancements: Construction of 9 kilometers of sewer lines, reinforcement of bridges, installation of high-capacity pumps, and the building of roads along both sides of the canal.

These measures culminated in a revitalized waterway, dramatically improving the environmental and urban landscape.

The successful transformation of the Nhieu Loc - Thi Nghe canal highlights the critical role of government involvement, effective policy implementation, and the vital support and unity of the community. The city government's commitment to investing in and overseeing the extensive renovation project, combined with well-planned policies and the collective effort of thousands of residents, has been key to revitalizing the canal and improving environmental and living conditions.

Case Study: Thailand

Thailand is one of the world’s most vulnerable countries to climate change and ranks among the top ten nations affected by extreme weather events (UNDP 2021). In response, the country has recently incorporated river protection and restoration into its national policy framework. Since 2001, the Thai Cabinet and the National Environment Board have developed a comprehensive policy framework and action plan for river conservation. The Thailand 20-Year Water Management Master Plan (2018-2037) emphasizes the importance of conserving and restoring watershed forests, particularly in regions prone to frequent droughts and floods.

Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) measures are emphasized in Thailand’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) for 2020-2037, as well as in the country's roadmap for climate mitigation and adaptation for 2021-2030. An assessment of two types of ecosystem-based measures to mitigate flooding and water shortages was conducted at two sites: the protection of the flood retention area in the Lower Yom River Basin and the Living Weir in Songkhla and Nakhon Si Thammarat provinces (Hioks and Mills 2022).

Bang Rakam model at the Lower Yom River Basin in northern Thailand (Figure 5A)

Yom river basin is a flood-prone region within the Chao Phraya River Basin. It has undergone significant land use changes, with much of its natural forest replaced by intensive rice farming. The area features flood retention measures, such as the Bang Rakam Model, designed to mitigate seasonal flooding by using low-lying areas as temporary water storage. After the severe flooding in Thailand in 2011, Bang Rakham Model, a major flood diversion scheme has been introduced as a flooding buffer in the times of flooding. Acting as a sponge, the wetlands in the Bang Rakham can store excess water in the wet season and slowly release water in the dry season.

The living weir cases in the Songkhla and Nakhon Si Thammarat provinces in southern Thailand (Figure 5B)

A living weir is a bamboo grid across a river, filled with natural materials like sand, coconut coir, and manure. Trees, including banyans, are planted along the banks to stabilize soil and gradually integrate into the structure. Built and maintained by the community, the living weirs enhance river national storage and retention capacity. They can help reduce floods and droughts by improving groundwater recharge and supporting biodiversity. They also empower the traditional ecological knowledge and strengthen community participation and local resource governance. The initial project stemmed from a community research project by the Prince of Songkhla University in response to the 2014 severe drought.

Pilot studies demonstrate that the EbA approach can effectively reduce vulnerability to hydrological climate change and disaster impacts, though it involves some costs and trade-offs. In its efforts to highlight EbA and address the impacts of climate change, the studies underscore the importance of integrating robust monitoring and evaluation frameworks into policy and practice, ensuring effective adaptive management and stakeholder engagement to enhance EbA’s long-term effectiveness.

Case Study: Cambodia

Cambodia river system, like their neighboring countries, are under pressure from water resource development infrastructure for energy, water, sand dredging for construction and urbanization. This has led to increasing riverbank erosions, deteriorating water quality and water shortages. These challenges are expected to worsen as the country aims to become an industrialized nation by 2030.

River restorations are seen as piecemeal focusing on urban needs such as river embankments, water regulation structures, facilitating fishery migration and connectivity within those small river systems in provinces around Tonle Sap Lake.

These are the policies dealing with river issues:

•  Royal decree on Establishment and Management of Tonle Sap Biosphere (2001)

•  National Water Resource Policy for Kingdom of Cambodia (2004)

•  Law on water resource management of the Kingdom of Cambodia (2007)

•  Sub-decree No.98 on River Basin Management (2015)

Sub-decree No.98 is one of the attempts to deal with river basin management, mostly focusing on a selected small river system. This sub-decree aims to manage, conserve and develop river basin to be more effective and sustainable in accordance to Law on Water Resource Management in the Kingdom of Cambodia. The river basin management committee is chaired by the Ministry of Water Resource Management and Meteorology (MOWRAM). Sub-decree 98, along with those provincial governments associated with the river basin, aims to assess and understand the current and future condition of the river system, identifying key priorities. However, within the selected river system, policy documents frequently integrate key components such as establishing vision, objectives, activities, and outcomes for river protection, use, and disaster management, as well as institutional development and strategies to achieve the proposed outcomes.

Sangker River in Battambang,

Cascade water infrastructure is being constructed along the Sangker River for river basin management, transforming its purpose from supporting irrigation and flood control to also providing recreation for urban centers and their residents. The urban center of Battambang is situated in a low-lying area and is vulnerable to flooding when the river exceeds 12.50 meters. In recent years, the river has regularly reached heights between 13 and 14 m. Flooding has affected economic activities in the municipality but has most severely impacted residents living in informal settlements, where land tenure is not clear. These residents are often restricted from preparing for floods by raising their land or modifying their houses. Water allocation through development irrigation and water diversion along the river are still unequally distributed among social class, while water distribution for irrigation still favors the local elite (Diepart and Thuon 2022).

With increased frequency of flooding in the city of Battambong, the idea of restoring natural ecosystems is gaining favor among foreign experts and consultants. Co-benefits include increased food and water security, job creation and even greater community cohesion and empowerment. To achieve these outcomes, key principles and actions include fostering diverse local participation, promoting social inclusiveness, capacity building and incorporating local knowledge (Friend and Thinphanga 2016).

The need for local participation and integrating nature into river restoration and development reintroduces natural elements that help communities to help adapt to climate change and to build better, more livable towns in the Mekong region. Green infrastructure includes a network of green space, environmental features, and technologies that enhance the resilience of urban areas. In practice, green infrastructure uses vegetation, soil, and natural processes to manage water levels, temperature, and air quality to create a healthier, resilient, and beautiful urban environment. Within urban boundary levels, promoting nature-base solutions includes a patchwork of natural areas that provide habitat, flood protection, clean air, clean water, food, and recreation.

While at local level, it includes storm water and drainage management that mimics nature by absorbing filtering and storing water thus improving its quality (Scott et al. 2016). The current river embankment, which stabilizes the river bank, added walkways and running route, and public gardens, has enhanced the city’s beauty and attraction for both visitors and local residents. The river system is also being managed by local NGOs working on plastic waste collection and restoring water flows in the river, thus ensuring a reliable water supply throughout the year, especially during special events, like Water Festival.

Case Study: Timor Leste

Rivers are vital natural watercourses that play a vital role in the hydrological cycle, supporting ecosystems, and providing essential resources for human life, agriculture, and industry. In Timor-Leste, while some rivers are large and permanent, the majority are semi-permanent or temporary (Takeleb, Sujono, and Jayadi 2020). Formed by rainwater and springs, these rivers follow naturally occurring courses on land. As they approach the coastal plain, they often spread into wide, meandering channels. Although they may appear dry at times, subsurface flows frequently persist beneath the gravel layer, just below the surface, ensuring continued ecological function during the dry season.

Major Rivers in Dili City

The capital city of Dili has three main rivers: the Comoro, Becora, and Maloa. The Comoro River is the largest, covering an area of approximately 250 km², followed by the Becora River at 11.7 km² and the Maloa River at 9.6 km² (Takeleb et al. 2023). These rivers are an integral part of the city’s drainage system and local ecosystem. However, these rivers are facing significant challenges (Ministry of Public Works and Ministry of Agriculture and Fishery Democratic Republic of Timore-Leste 2022):

●  Sedimentation and Mining: The watershed is heavily impacted by sedimentation, and traditional sand and gravel mining activities continue. This not only alters the natural flow but also degrades water quality.

●  Environmental Degradation: Over-extraction of water resources, land use change in the watershed, contamination from pollutants, and saltwater intrusion are major threats to the health and sustainability of the river.

Challenges in River Restoration of Timor-Leste

Timor-Leste's river restoration efforts encounter several obstacles, such as:

● Legislative Gaps: There is a lack of comprehensive laws and standards specifically addressing river governance. Existing policies, such as the National Water Resource Management Policy (2008), and the Environmental Framework Law (2012), provide a foundational framework but lack detailed regulations for river management (Costin and Powell 2006).

● Institutional Uncertainty: The role of river management remains unclear. While the Directorate of Road, Bridge and Flood Control (DRBFC) is responsible for building river management infrastructure, maintenance tasks are usually delegated to city governments, leading to potential inconsistencies in management practices.

● Excessive Resource Extraction and Contamination: Excessive water withdrawals for agricultural and industrial purposes deplete river resources, while inadequate waste management systems contribute to pollution and ecosystem degradation.

● Saltwater Intrusion: Coastal rivers are increasingly vulnerable to saltwater intrusion, exacerbated by rising sea levels and excessive groundwater extraction, threatening freshwater availability.

Current Initiatives and Planning

River management and restoration efforts in Timor-Leste are still in their early stages but are showing promising results through several initiatives (Costin and Powell 2006), such as:

●  Legal Framework Development: Efforts are underway to formulate comprehensive river laws and mining regulations to provide clear guidelines for sustainable river management.

●  Water Resources Management Project: This project focuses on integrated water resources management, including watershed mapping, identifying restoration priorities, and implementing conservation strategies.

●  Environmental Conservation Initiatives: Collaborations between NGOs, international agencies, and the Timor-Leste government aim to improve environmental conditions. Programs include reforestation, pollution control, and habitat restoration.

●  Climate Change Adaptation Strategies: Recognizing the impacts of climate change on river ecosystems, strategies are being developed to increase resilience. These include reducing erosion through reforestation, improving water quality, and restoring natural river functions to reduce extreme weather events.

Improved Hydrological Observation and Infrastructure

To support effective river management, the following actions are being undertaken:

●  Hydrological Monitoring: Installation of rainfall and water level gauge stations improves river flow monitoring and allows for better prediction of floods and droughts (Takeleb and Ximenes 2020).

●  Flood Control Facilities: Construction of embankments to prevent riverbank erosion and lower embankments to address riverbed degradation is underway, aimed at protecting infrastructure and maintaining river integrity.

●  Collaborative Management Practices: Partnerships with gravel companies and local communities encourage sustainable extraction practices and ensure that restoration projects benefit and engage communities (JICA 2010).

●  Capacity Building: Development of organizational structures and training programs will improve the operational and maintenance capabilities of local governments responsible for river management.

Effective river management in Timor-Leste requires a multifaceted approach that addresses legislative gaps, enhances institutional capacities, and involves community engagement. Implementing comprehensive laws, fostering inter-agency collaboration, and promoting sustainable resource use are critical steps toward restoring and maintaining healthy river ecosystems. Future efforts should focus on integrating scientific research with traditional knowledge, expanding hydrological monitoring, and ensuring that restoration projects are inclusive and benefit local communities.

Conclusion

The re-imagination of rivers as ecosystems in cases of selected Southeast Asian countries (Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, and Timor-Leste) is a great starting point and reflects how rivers are viewed in terms of culture, economy, ecology, environment, conservation, and innovation in the context of restoration. 

The river restoration efforts across selected Southeast Asian Countries, showcases the significant of sustainable water management, government intervention and community participation in addressing urban water challenges. The case of Vietnam river restoration demonstrates the impact of large-scale investments and urban renewal, improving water quality and environmental conditions through infrastructure upgrades. In Thailand, the long-term water management strategy integrates ecosystem-based adaptation to mitigate climate risks, emphasizing multi-benefit areas and technical safeguards. 

The approaches in Cambodian’s river restoration, example of Battambang River, focuses on balancing urban development with nature-based solutions, promoting green infrastructure and inclusive community participation. In Timor-Leste river restoration faces legislative gaps and institutional challenges but is making strides in hydrological monitoring, environmental conservation, and collaborative river management. 

The restoration effort in Timor-Leste reinforces the importance of a holistic and inclusive approach to river restoration and requires a long-term commitment and role of various stakeholders. These case studies bring attention to the necessity of a multi-faceted approach by combining legal framework, technical innovation, and public engagement to sustain long-term river sustainability in Southeast Asian Countries.

It is recommended that a holistic, inclusive approach combining legal frameworks, technical innovation, and public engagement is needed to ensure long-term river sustainability in Southeast Asian countries. 

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Apisom Intralawan is an interdisciplinary researcher and lecturer at Mae Fah Luang University in Chiang Rai, Thailand, specializing in Ecological Economics. His research focuses on advancing sustainable development in the Lower Mekong River Basin.

Try Thuon holds a PhD in Social Sciences in Urban Studies. He is the program coordinator for the Department of Sustainable Urban Planning and Development (DSUPD) at the Royal University of Phnom Penh. 

Aderita Mariana Takeleb is Vice Rector for Academic Affairs at Dili Institute of Technology. 

Tran Kim Chau is an esteemed associate professor with 18 years of experience in water engineering, bringing a wealth of knowledge and expertise to the field.

Nong Huu Duong holds a PhD in Natural Resources and Environmental Management from the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. He is currently a lecturer at the Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment at Vietnam National University of Agriculture, and a former researcher at the East-West Center in Honolulu, Hawaii. 

Eduardo Aniceto Serrão is an active academician and currently serves as the Vice-Dean for Cooperation and Research at the Faculty of Agriculture, National University of Timor Lorosa’e (UNTL). 

Disclaimer: This published work was prepared with the support of the Heinrich Böll Stiftung. The views and analysis contained in the work are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the foundation. The author is responsible for any liability claims against copyright breaches of graphics, photograph, images, audio, and text used. 

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